perm filename MUSIC.TVR[UP,DOC]8 blob
sn#237251 filedate 1976-09-19 generic text, type T, neo UTF8
STANFORD ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE LABORATORY September 19, 1976
**** DRAFT **** DRAFT **** DRAFT **** DRAFT **** DRAFT **** DRAFT ***
Music Manual
by
Tovar
ABSTRACT:
This document describes the compiler/interpeter, MUSCMP, used in the
Stanford Computer Music System. It includes a description of the
language and its use. MUSCMP is the successor to MUS10, written by
David W. Poole and is a descendant of MUSIC IV, written by Max W.
Mathews.
Music Manual
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
SECTION PAGE
Section 1 Introduction
Section 2 Declarations
2-1 Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2-2 Variable Declaration . . . . . . . . . 3
2-3 Array Declaration . . . . . . . . . . 4
2-4 Function Declaration . . . . . . . . . 5
2-5 Instrument Declaration . . . . . . . . 6
Section 3 Expressions
3-1 Function Call: . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3-2 Unit Generator Call . . . . . . . . . 8
3-3 Array Subscripting . . . . . . . . . 8
Section 4 Statements
4-1 Function Call: . . . . . . . . . . 10
4-2 Unit Generator Call . . . . . . . . 10
4-3 Assignment Statement . . . . . . . . 11
4-4 WHILE Statement . . . . . . . . . 11
4-5 UNTIL Statement . . . . . . . . . 11
4-6 FOR Statement . . . . . . . . . . 12
4-7 PRINT Statement . . . . . . . . . 12
4-8 Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4-9 RETURN Statement . . . . . . . . . 14
4-10 DONE and EXIT Statements . . . . . . 14
Section 5 Extended Commands
Section 6 Unit Generators
6-1 Controlled Calling Rates . . . . . . 17
6-2 VFMULT . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6-3 LINEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6-4 VALUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6-5 The OSCIL family of Unit Generators . . . 19
6-6 The ZOSCIL Family of Unit Generators . . 20
6-7 The RAND Family of Unit Generators . . . 22
Section 7 Built-in Functions
7-1 SYNTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7-2 SEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Page i
Music Manual
7-3 SEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7-4 SETCLOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7-5 PRINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7-6 RDNUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7-7 LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7-8 RAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7-9 INT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7-10 FORTRAN Functions . . . . . . . . . 26
Section 8 Computing sound
8-1 PLAY Block . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8-2 Instrument Call . . . . . . . . . 28
8-3 FINISH statement . . . . . . . . . 30
Section 9 Outputting the sound
9-1 Short segments directly from MUSCMP . . . 31
9-2 Longer segments using MUSCMP to write
a sound file . . . . . . . 31
9-3 Production runs . . . . . . . . . 31
Appendix A Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Appendix B Reserved Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Appendix C Predefined Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Appendix D Error Messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Appendix E Changes since MUS10 . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Page ii
Music Manual
Section 1
_______ _
Introduction
____________
The music compiler features a subset of ALGOL with special operations
directed toward music synthesis. There are three modes the compiler
can be in. It can be in COMPILE mode, where instrument definitions
are accepted and compiled. It can be in PLAY mode, where it accepts a
note list and invokes these instruments to generate a sound waveform.
If you are not in either COMPILE or PLAY mode, you are in
interpretive mode, where any ALGOL statements given get interpreted
on the spot.
Page 2
Music Manual
Section 2
_______ _
Declarations
____________
2-1. Identifiers
___________
<identifier> ::= <letter>{<alphanumeric>}
<alphanumeric> ::= <letter>|<number>
<letter> ::= A|B|C|...Z|_|$|#
<digit> ::= 0|1|2|...9
An identifier always begins with a letter and may be followed with
any number of letters or digits. There are three characters which
are treated as letters, $, # and _. Lower case letters are converted
_ _ _
to upper case. Certain identifiers have special meanings which may
not be used as names for variables, functions, arrays or instruments.
There are two kinds, P and U variables, which are of the form
P<number> and U<number> (see below) and reserved words like ARRAY or
_ _ _____
BEGIN. A list of reserved words is contained in Section 2.
_____
2-2. Variable Declaration
________ ___________
<variable declaration> ::= VARIABLE <identifier>{,<identifier>};
All variables must be declared before they are used. A variable
declaration consists of the reserved word VARIABLE followed by a list
of identifiers to be declared as variables. All variables must be
declared before they are used.
If variables are to be used during R-Time (see Section ), they must
be declared as R-Time variable by preceding each variable name with a
slash in their declaration.
There are certain variables, P1,P2,P3,..Pn and U1,U2,U3,...Un which
have special meanings. Pn is the nth element of the P_Array, which is
the list of parameters to an instrument. Within an instrument
definition, Un is the output of the nth unit generator within that
instrument definition.
Page 3
Music Manual Declarations
All variables are stored in floating point representation, with two
exceptions. One exception is in function definitions, where the data
types STRING and INTEGER are also allowed, for compatability with
external FORTRAN callable subroutines. The second exceptions are P-
variables, which do not have a specific type associated with them.
This means they can be used as variables, arrays, and so forth
without regard to type, hence one must be careful using them as one
can easily make the mistake of using a number instead of an array
with most unpredicatable results (usually causes an ILL MEM REF, or
___ ___ ___
illegal memory reference).
Example:
VARIABLE A,B,/C,D,/RT; COMMENT Declares A,B,D to be I-Time variables
Declares C,RT to be R-Time variables;
2-3. Array Declaration
_____ ___________
<array declaration> ::= ARRAY <array decl. list>
<array decl. list> ::= <variable>[(<constant>)]
{,<array decl. list>}|
<variable>(<constant>)
All arrays must be declared before they are used and contain numbers
in floating point representation. An array declaration consists of
the reserved word ARRAY followed by a list consisting of the
identifier followed by the array size in parenthesis, separated by
commas. If there are several arrays of the same size, the size may
be omitted on all but the last array of that size. Arrays are
currently restricted to single subscripts and elements are numbered
from 0 to n-1. Arrays within blocks are not dynamically allocated(1);
they are allocated at compile time, hence they must be a fixed size.
Take note that arrays are not initialized and may contain practically
anything.
Example:
ARRAY F1,F2,F3(512),BAZ(2000); COMMENT Declares F1, F2, F3 to be
arrays of length 512, BAZ to be an
array of length 2000;
Note: Array subscripts always start with 0 and thus have a maximum
subscript of one less than the size of the array. Thus, F3[511] is
_______
_______________________
(1) Dynamic allocation will probably be implemented in the future.
Page 4
Music Manual Declarations
the last element of the array F3 defined in the example. See Page 8
__
for details on referencing elements of an array.
2-4. Function Declaration
________ ___________
<function declaration> ::= FUNCTION <identifier>(<formal list>)
<function tail>|
EXTERNAL FUNCTION <identifier>
(<formal list>)
<formal list> ::= <formal declaration>{,<formal list>}
<formal declaration> ::= ARRAY <identifier> |
INTEGER <identifier>|
STRING <identifier> |
<identifier>
<function tail> ::= ; <block> | = <expression>
A function declaration defines a function in MUSCMP. A function
takes from 0 to n arguments, which may be variables, arrays, string
constants or expressions and returns a value, which is a real number.
Functions are executed at either I-time or R-time, depending on the
arguments at the time they are called (see Page ).
The function declaration includes a list of formal parameters, which
represent their respective actual arguments when the function is
called. The formal parameters are local variables in terms of scope,
that is they are known only within the function which they are
declared. Their use outside that function will have one of three
results. If the variable is not defined outside that function, an
error message will be issued. If it is defined to be of a different
type, an error message will also be issued, except in a PLAY list
where type checking is not as stringent (for details, see Page 29).
If it is defined outside the function to be of the same type, no
error message will occur, the result is likely not to be what was
intended.
Functions are always called by reference(1), which means that if an
assignment is done to one of the formal parameters, the argument
itself will be modified. Such assignments are strongly discouraged,
since if the function is called with a constant as an argument, the
constant's value will be changed, which usually has disastorous and
mysterious results!
There are three forms of function declaration. In the first form,
_______________________
(1) This is the standard FORTRAN IV calling sequence on the PDP-10.
Page 5
Music Manual Declarations
the value of the function is the value of the expression to the right
of the '='. For example, the following function calculates the cube
of a number.
FUNCTION CUBE(X) = X * X * X;
PRINT CUBE(2);
8.
The second form is used for more complex functions. Its value is the
expression part of the last RETURN statement executed within that
______
function, as there may be more than one RETURN statement in a
______
function. For example, the following function returns the maximum
amplitude of an waveform contained in an array.
FUNCTION AMPLITUDE(ARRAY M);
BEGIN VARIABLE I,MAX;
MAX←0; COMMENT Initialize maximum amplitude;
FOR I ← 0 STEP 1 UNTIL LENGTH(M)-1
DO IF ABS(M[I])>MAX THEN MAX←ABS(M[I]);
COMMENT Compare each element with
current maximum;
RETURN MAX; COMMENT The value of the function is
the maximum amplitude found;
END;
The third form is used for functions written in FORTRAN or machine
code. It defines the argument list which the function expects to see
and fetchs the address from DDT's symbol table. This means that you
must to use the same name for the function as was written in the
program or MUSCMP will not find its address! The following is an
example of this form of declaration.
EXTERNAL FUNCTION SQRT(X);
WARNING: The syntax for formal declaration may be changed someday to
conform to ALGOL.
2-5. Instrument Declaration
__________ ___________
<instrument declaration>::= INSTRUMENT <identifier>;
<declaration list>;<statement list>
Page 6
Music Manual
Section 3
_______ _
Expressions
___________
<expression> ::= <simple expr><relop><simple expr>|<simple expr>
<simple expr> ::= <term>|<term><addop><simple expr>
<term> ::= <factor>|<factor><mulop><term>
<factor> ::= <primary>
<primary> ::= -<primary>|(<expression>)|<function call>|
<unit generator call>|<variable>←<expression>|
<variable>|<array ref>|<constant>
<array ref> ::= <array name>[<expression>]
<relop> ::= <|=|>|α≤|≠|≥
<addop> ::= +|-
<mulop> ::= *|/
Expressions are like algebraic formulae with certain changes required
so that they may be typed on a keyboard. For example, '*` is used
instead of 'x` and '/` has been used to indicate division. The use
of parenthesis is similar, but the following:
3+4␈_5
___ _
7␈2
should be written as (3+4*5)/(7*2), not 3+4*5/7*2. When in doubt,
_____________ _________
put in the extra parenthesis. In mathematical notation, there is an
implied multiplication frequently used which must be stated
explicitly in MUSCMP, therefore 2x+3 should be written as 2*X+3. It
_____
is also necessary to expiicately parenthesis the arguments to
functions which would not be required in mathematical notation, for
example, sin x should be written as SIN(X).
______
Relational operators, (as in x > 4) are defined to evaluate to 0 if
false and 1 if true. One should use care with the operators '=' and
'≠' as floating point arithmetic is not exact(1) discussion. For
example:
PRINT 3/5+2/5 = 1;
0
_______________________
(1) See Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Section 4.2.2 (Vol.
___ ___ __ ________ ___________
II) if you really want to know about this.
Page 7
Music Manual Expressions
3-1. Function Call:
________ _____
<function call> ::= <function>(<parameter list>)
<parameter list>::= <parameter>,<parameter list>|<parameter>
<parameter> ::= <expression>|<array>|<string constant>
A function call consists of the function name followed by a list of
parameters separated by commas and enclosed by parenthesis. The
effect is to call the function (or subroutine) with that list of
parameters. If the function is not defined to return a value, such
as a FORTRAN subroutine, the value of the function is undefined and
may be almost anything. For additional information on functions, see
Page 5. For descriptions of the built-in functions available, see
Page 23.
Example:
PRINT SQRT(2);
1.414213
3-2. Unit Generator Call
____ _________ ____
A unit generator is a special kind of function, as it may contain
both at I-time and R-time code and requires special initialization,
Hence a unit generator call is only legal within an instrument. Note
that a unit generator call within an expression can not be refered to
by Un. Only unit generators used as statements are counted for U
_ _
symbols. See Section 6.
3-3. Array Subscripting
_____ ____________
<array ref> ::= <array name>[<expression>]
One can reference particular elements of an array by following the
array name with the index in square brackets(1). Thus, F1[5] refers
_____
_______________________
(1) Parentheses are also acceptable here.
Page 8
Music Manual Expressions
to element number 5 in the array F1. Since arrays are always contain
__
floating point numbers, the construction F1[5] represents a single
_____
floating point number and can be used like a variable.
It is important to note that array start with element number 0 and
thus if an array F1 is of size n, the last element of the array is
__
F1[n-1]. For example, the following loads an array, F1, with one
___ __
cycle of a sine wave:
ARRAY F1(512);
BEGIN VARIABLE I;
FOR I←0 STEP 1 UNTIL 512-1
DO F1[I]←SIN(I/512);
END;
The index, also known as the subscript, is check for being within
range, with one important exception. In instruments, array
references done at R-Time are not check for efficiency reasons. If
an array reference is out of bounds, i.e. less than 0 or greater than
or equal to the array size, a diagnostic is printed. For example:
I←512;
PRINT F1[I];
Subscript of out bounds for array F1, subscript = 512
??
It should be noted that since number is stored in floating point
representation, it must be converted to an integer before referencing
the array element. This conversion is accomplished by the INT
___
function (see Page 26) and is NOT the same as rounding. If
multiplication or division is done on floating point numbers, one
often gets something like 4.99999 instead of 5.0 as a result and when
this is used as a index, it will give the element number 4 instead of
5 as one might naively expect.
Page 9
Music Manual
Section 4
_______ _
Statements
__________
<statement> ::= <function call>|<unit generator call>|
<WHILE statement>|<UNTIL statement>|
<FOR statement>|<conditional statement>|
<PRINT statement>|<assignment statement>|
<RETURN statement>|EXIT|DONE|
<block>
4-1. Function Call:
________ _____
<function call> ::= <function>(<parameter list>)
<parameter list>::= <parameter>,<parameter list>|<parameter>
<parameter> ::= <expression>|<array>|<string constant>
A function call consists of the function name followed by a list of
parameters separated by commas and enclosed by parenthesis. The
effect is to call the function (or subroutine) with that list of
parameters. If the function returns a value, that value is lost.
Example:
SYNTH(F1); COMMENT Call the function SYNTH with F1
as an argument;
4-2. Unit Generator Call
____ _________ ____
<unit generator call> ::= <unit generator>(<parameter list>)|
<unit generator>[<expression>](<parameter list>)
A unit generator is a special kind of function, as it may contain
both at I-time and R-time code and requires special initialization,
Hence a unit generator call is only legal within an instrument. The
value of nth unit generator in an instrument can be refered to by Un.
_
Only unit generators used as statements are counted for U symbols, if
_
a unit generator is used with an expression it is not counted. See
Section 6.
Page 10
Music Manual Statements
4-3. Assignment Statement
__________ _________
<assignment statement> ::= <variable>←<expression>
This statement assigns the value of the expression to the variable to
the left of the `←' Caution: Assignment to formal parameters of a
function can have unexpected results; see Page 5.
Example:
I←123; COMMENT Set the value of the variable 'I` to 123;
4-4. WHILE Statement
_____ _________
<WHILE statement> ::= WHILE <conditional> DO <statement>
A WHILE statement consists of the reserved word WHILE, an expression,
_____
called the condition followed by the reserved word DO and a
__
statement. So long as the condition is true, i.e. not zero, the
statement will be repeated indefinitely. Generally, the statement
affects part of the condition and the statement eventually
terminates.
Example:
I←1; WHILE I<1000 DO PRINT(I←2*I);
2. 4. 8. 16. 32. 64. 128. 256. 512. 1024.
4-5. UNTIL Statement
_____ _________
<UNTIL Statement> ::= DO <statement> UNTIL <conditional>
An UNTIL statement is like an WHILE statement except that the
statement is executed before the condition and loop terminates when
the condition is true. It consists of the reserved word DO, a
__
statement followed by the reserved word UNTIL and an expression, the
_____
condition.
Page 11
Music Manual Statements
Example:
I←10; DO PRINT(I←I-1) UNTIL I≤0;
9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 0
4-6. FOR Statement
___ _________
<FOR statement> ::= FOR <variable>←<expression> STEP <expression>
UNTIL <expression> DO <statement>
This performs the statement for each value of the variable, beginning
with the expression immediately following the `←' in steps defined by
the second expression until it is greater than the third expression.
The value of the variable will always be the last value which was
less than the third expression. If the first expression is greater
than the third expression, the statement will be skipped altogether
and the variable unchanged.
Example:
FOR I←0 STEP 2 UNTIL 20 PRINT(I);
0 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14. 16. 18. 20.
4-7. PRINT Statement
_____ _________
<PRINT statement> ::= PRINT <print list>
<print list> ::= <expression>,<print list>|<expression>|
<string constant>,<print list>|
<string constant>
This types each number or string in the print list. Numbers are
printed in free field format with a trailing space. Strings are
printed without a leading or trailing space and may include any
character. To enter a double quote, precede it with `≡' and to enter
_
`≡', put in two consecutive `≡'s.
_ _
Page 12
Music Manual Statements
Example:
PRINT "SQRT(2) = ",SQRT(2);
SQRT(2) = 1.41423
4-8. Block
_____
<block> ::= BEGIN <declaration list>;<statement list>
<declaration list> ::= <declaration>;<declaration list>|<declaration>
<statement list> ::= <statement>;<statement list>|END
A Block is a list of statements, brackets by the reserved words,
BEGIN and END and separated by the semicolons. Anything declared
within a block is a local variable and therefore is not known outside
that block, but anything which is declared outside a block may be
referenced within that block provided that it has not been redefined.
Thus variables names within blocks maybe chosen without being
concerned with name conflicts. (See also discussion of local
variables in functions on Page 5.)
Example:
VARIABLE X; X←123; PRINT X;
123.
BEGIN VARIABLE X,Y; X←456; Y←789; PRINT X,Y; END;
456. 789.
PRINT X;
123.
PRINT Y;
ERROR: UNDEFINED IDENTIFIER Line = 7 /1
PRINT Y;
↑
??
Page 13
Music Manual Statements
4-9. RETURN Statement
______ _________
<RETURN statement> ::= RETURN <expression>
A RETURN statement is only valid within a function definition. It is
______
used to terminate execution of a function and to return as the value
of that function, the expression immediately following the RETURN.
______
There may be more than one RETURN statement in a given function. See
______
Page 6) for more information and an example.
4-10. DONE and EXIT Statements
____ ___ ____ __________
A DONE statement is only valid within a FOR, WHILE, or UNTIL loop and
____ ___ _____ _____
serves provide an alternative means of terminating execution of that
loop. There may be more than one DONE statement in a given loop. If
____
two loops are nested, the DONE only finishs from the innermost loop.
____
An EXIT statement provides for early termination of a block. Like
____
the DONE statement, it only exits the innermost block.
____
DONE statements can appear in blocks and EXIT statements can appear
____ ____
in loops. In such cases, both the block and the loop are exited.
The following example illustrates several uses of EXIT and DONE
COMMENT Print the first 100 prime numbers;
VARIABLE N,I;
PRINT 2; COMMENT Only even prime;
FOR N←3 STEP 2 UNTIL 100 DO COMMENT Skip the rest of the evens;
BEGIN
FOR I←3 STEP 2 UNTIL N DO COMMENT Try each factor;
IF N = I*INT(N/I) COMMENT If it divides evenly, stop;
THEN EXIT COMMENT (Exits block and continues
outer FOR);
ELSE IF N/I<I COMMENT Don't bother past its square;
THEN DONE; COMMENT root. (Exits inner FOR);
PRINT N; COMMENT We found one;
END; COMMENT (of FOR loop);
Page 14
Music Manual
Section 5
_______ _
Extended Commands
________ ________
These commands may be entered at the top level by preceding them with
an <alt mode> (which is echoed as $).
_
Exit: <alt mode>EXIT
____
Return to Monitor.
Play: <alt mode>P <integer>
____
Plays the music buffered in core the specified number of times. If
no argument is given, one is assumed.
Save: <alt mode>SAVE
____
Saves the music buffered in core on a disk file. At Stanford, this
is in 12 bit format.
Print: <altmode>PRINT <expression>;
_____
Prints the value of the expression. It used to only be an extended
command. It is now generalized as an regular statement and the
extended command is considered obsolete. See PRINT Statement on Page
12.
Reduce Core size: <alt mode>EXCISE
______ ____ ____
Reduces to the minimum core required.
Space: <alt mode>SPACE
_____
Prints the total space available followed by the core buffer space
and the number of seconds of sound which may be produced.
DDT: <alt mode>DDT
___
Starts up RAID or DDT. [Not usually loaded in system version but may
be in other core images.]
Page 15
Music Manual Extended Commands
Printing the Symbol Table: <alt mode><declarator> LIST
________ ___ ______ _____
This list the contents of the symbol table. Please note that this
does not include symbols in inner blocks. The following types may be
listed:
VARIABLE
FUNCTION
ARRAY
INSTRUMENT
UNIT_GENERATOR
Page 16
Music Manual
Section 6
_______ _
Unit Generators
____ __________
Consider producing the sound of a simple sine wave. If one had to
call the sine subroutine for each sample, it would take a long time
to compute a second of sound even at the lowest sampling rate.
Therefore, instead of calculating the function for every sample, an
array is filled with the values of the function. Then, for each
sample, the value is read out of the appropriate entry in the array,
instead of calculating it. Of course, for many kinds of functions,
the value will not be as particalarly accurate, but it is usually
adequate for use in music. There are unit generators which do
interpolation, instead of a simple array lookup, and these will
produce accurate enough values for most critical cases.
6-1. Controlled Calling Rates
__________ _______ _____
In many cases, a function does not change rapidly with time.
Therefore to save computer time, it would be desirable not to have to
call the unit generator for every sample. This, which is called a
controlled calling rate, is expressed by placing a bracketed
expression immediately following the unit generator name in a unit
generator call.
Example:
OSCIL[10](P4,10*MAG/P2,F1);
Calls the unit generator OSCIL every tenth sample, and uses the same
value for the other nine samples.
6-2. VFMULT
______
Argument list:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Subscript
Page 17
Music Manual Unit Generators
3 - Array
VFMULT multiplies the first argument times the element of the array
described by the second argument. If the second argument is getter
than the array length, it is reduced by that array length until it is
within the size of the array.
6-3. LINEN
_____
Argument list:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Rise time
3 - Decay time
4 - Total time
5 - Array
6 - Initial point in array
This function uses a 384 word array in three sections, to generate an
envelope function with separate rise time, intermediate time and
decay time. The rise time and decay time are a function of the
second argument, third argument and the total time. Their values in
seconds may be calculated according to the following formula.
To obtain a rise time of .1 seconds and a decay time of .4 seconds,
LINEN(P4,.1,.4,P2,F1,TMP←0);
CAUTION: The initial point in array must be a variable and should
usually be zero. If it is a constant, you will clobber the value of
that constant with most unpredicable results. Furthermore, this
variable should be different for each unit generator call, or else
the unit generators will interfere with each other.
6-4. VALUE
_____
Argument list:
1 - Expression
Page 18
Music Manual Unit Generators
VALUE is a special unit generator which returns its first parameter
as its value. Its sole reason for existent is to allow R-time
expressions to be evaluated with a controlled calling rate. For
example,
VALUE[100](RV←A*SIN(X));
stores the value of A*SIN(X) into the variable RV every 100 samples.
6-5. The OSCIL family of Unit Generators
___ _____ ______ __ ____ __________
OSCIL is short for oscillator. An OSCIL outputs successive values of
the function (or waveform) stored in an array. When it reached the
end of that array, it `wraps around' and starts back at the beginning
of the array. The rate at which it moves down the array is a
parameter called the increment, measured in array elements per
sample, which is equal to the frequency times the array length
divided by the sample rate. For convenience, there is a variable
called MAG which is set to 512/SRATE, 512 being the length of arrays
___ _________ ___
used here and SRATE being the sample rate. Since most functions used
_____
with OSCIL range between -1 and 1, there is a parameter called the
amplitude, by which the value of the function is multiplied by to
produce the value of unit generator.
The usual order of arguments is:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Increment
3 - Array
The following are the many kinds of OSCIL's:
OSCIL:
_____
OSCIL always starts at the beginning of the array when the instrument
is called and will produce an error message if a negative increment
is supplied.
NOSCIL:
______
NOSCIL always starts at the beginning of the array when the
instrument is called and will accept a negative argument.
COSCIL:
______
Page 19
Music Manual Unit Generators
COSCIL starts wherever it left off the last time that instrument was
called. (If there are more than one COSCIL's in an instrument, they
do not effect each other.) COSCIL will accept a negative argument.
EXPEN:
_____
EXPEN always starts at the beginning of the array and instead of
'wrapping around` when it reachs the end, it always returns the same
value upon subsequent calls.
NOSCA:
_____
Argument list:
1 - Initial index in array
2 - Amplitude
3 - Increment
4 - Array
INTRP:
_____
Argument list:
1 - Input A
2 - Input B
3 - Increment
4 - Array
INTRP is an unusual variant of OSCIL which almost deserves to be in a
class of its own. Like OSCIL, it scans down the array, but instead
of multiplying by the amplitude, it interpolates between inputs A and
_
B. To be more exact, the output is given by A*X+B*(1-X), where X is
_ ___________ _
the array element(1). The contents of the array are expected to be
between 0 and 1 for normal usage.
6-6. The ZOSCIL Family of Unit Generators
___ ______ ______ __ ____ __________
The ZOSCIL family interpolates between the two closest array
elements, rather that doing a straight lookup. If it reaches the end
of an array, it will interpolate between the last element and the
first element, which may produce unexpected (but consistent) results
for discontinuous functions. ZOSCIL unit generators are useful were
higher accuracy or or smoothness is necessary, as for Chowning's FM
sounds.
_______________________
(1) Actually the calculation is done as A+X*(B-A)
_________
Page 20
Music Manual Unit Generators
The typical paramenter list is:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Increment
3 - Array
The following are the various kinds of ZOSCIL.
ZOSCIL:
______
ZOSCIL always starts at the beginning of the array and will accept a
negative increment.
CZOSCIL:
_______
CZOSCIL interpolates between the two closest array elements, rather
that doing a straight lookup. Like COSCIL, it starts wherever it
left off the last time the instrument was called. CZOSCIL will accept
negative increment.
ZEXPEN:
______
ZEXPEN is like a EXPEN except ZEXPEN interpolates between the two
closest array elements, rather that doing a straight lookup. Like
EXPEN, instead of 'wrapping around` when it reachs the end, it always
returns the same value upon subsequent calls.
ZOSCA:
_____
Argument list:
1 - Initial point in array
2 - Amplitude
3 - Increment
4 - Array
ZOSCA is a special form of ZOSCIL which sets where it starts in the
array to the value of the first argument.
ZINTRP:
______
Argument list:
1 - Input A
2 - Input B
3 - Increment
4 - Array
Page 21
Music Manual Unit Generators
ZINTRP is like a INTRP except ZINTRP interpolates between the two
closest array elements to get a number to use to interpolate between
the two inputs! See description of INTRP on Page 20.
6-7. The RAND Family of Unit Generators
___ ____ ______ __ ____ __________
There are two random number generators that are available as unit
generators. These are RANDH and RANDI. Both of these generate a
pseudo-random number (via the linear congruential method) every so
often. The first argument to these unit generators is the amplitude
(it will go to plus and minus that number), and the second argument
is the frequency (times MAG, of course). RANDH will get a random
number and hold it for one period (the time of which is determined by
the second argument), whereas RANDI will interpolate linearly from
this point to the next.
Argument list:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Increment
For example, the following will generate five random number per
second between 440 and 660:
FREQ←550+RANDH(220,5*MAG);
Page 22
Music Manual
Section 7
_______ _
Built-in Functions
________ _________
7-1. SYNTH
_____
This is a FORTRAN subroutine, usually loaded with the Compiler, which
allows arrays to be loaded with the sum and/or product of sine waves.
To use SYNTH, you must dimension an array to the appropriate size
(presently 512) and call it with SYNTH(<array name>). You should then
______ _
input four numbers:
1) the harmonic (denoted by H),
2) the amplitude (denoted by A),
3) the phase angle in degrees (denoted by P), and
4) a constant with is added to the amplitude (denoted by K).
If K is greater than 100 then it will multiply instead of add the
sine wave described. It is terminated by the single entry of 999 for
H. If you are at a III display, after the four parameters, the new
state of the array will be displayed.
7-2. SEG
___
Like SYNTH, this is a subroutine usually loaded with the Compiler.
It allows arrays to be defined as line segments. To use is, you
first must dimension an array to the appropriate size (presently 512)
and call the function with SEG(<array name>). If you are at a
____ _
display, it will display the array as you load it. It expects input
of two numbers, the amplitude and the position in the array, on a
scale from 0 to 100. It is terminated by the entry of 100 as a
position.
There is a version of SYNTH and SEG which will save the array on a
file in a form which may be read by the MUSCMP. This is in an
external program called FUNC. If you really want to know about it,
see Leland Smith for details.
Page 23
Music Manual Built-in Functions
7-3. SEE
___
Argument list:
1 - Array to be displayed
This routine displays the content of an array. It is called with the
array to be displayed as an argument in the form SEE(<array name>).
__________ ______
Type 0<return> when you are done looking at the display and the
_
display will be cleared.
7-4. SETCLOCK
________
No Arguments
SETCLOCK may be used to setup NCHNS, SRATE (the clock or sampling
_____ _____
rate), and MAG to their appropriate values. When called, it asks for
___
the number of channels and clock rate. It then sets MAG to 512/SRATE.
___ _________
Available clock rates are 12800 and 25600. Clock rates less than 100
are multiplied by 1000 (i.e. 12.8 becomes 12800);
7-5. PRINT
_____
Argument list:
1 - Number to be printed
Prints an integer or floating point number. It is mostly obsolete
and is here for the use in compatablity (see Page 12). For use in
FORTRAN programs, there is a function called PNUM which is
____
approximately equivalent to PRINT. FORTRAN I/O is incompatable with
MUSCMP and attempts to use it will result in various errors like
ILLEGAL UUO AT XXX The difference in names is because the name PRINT
would conflict with FORTRAN.
Page 24
Music Manual Built-in Functions
7-6. RDNUM
_____
Argument list:
1 - Variable to recieve number
Inputs a number from the current input device. Returns a floating
point number. Callable from FORTRAN, as FORTRAN I/O is incompatable
with MUSCMP.
7-7. LENGTH
______
Argument list:
1 - Array or string
Returns the length of a string or array.
7-8. RAND
____
Argument list:
None
Generates pseudo-random numbers between -1 and 1(1).
_______________________
(1) The first time RAND is called, the number returned is a function
of the time and date.
Page 25
Music Manual Built-in Functions
7-9. INT
___
Argument list:
1 - Number
Returns the integer part, or to be more precise the entier function.
For example:
INT(123.456)=123
INT(-123.45)=-124
Note: At the moment, the version for a KI10 or KL10 uses the FORTRAN-
style INT, where INT(-123.456)=-123. This should be fixed soon.
7-10. FORTRAN Functions
_______ _________
The following functions are loaded from the FORTRAN Library:
SQRT(X) Square root
_______
SIN(X) Sine in radians
______
SIND(X) Sine in degrees
_______
COS(X) Cosine in radians
______
COSD(X) Cosine in degrees
_______
ALOG(X) Natural logarithm
_______
ALOG10(X) Logarithm base 10
_________
ABS(X) Absolute value
______
x
EXP(X) e
______
Page 26
Music Manual
Section 8
_______ _
Computing sound
_________ _____
8-1. PLAY Block
____ _____
<play block> ::= PLAY; <play list> |
PLAY <filespec>; <play list>
<play list> ::= <instrument call>;<play list>|
<statement>;<play list>|
FINISH
<instrument call> ::= <instrument><parameter list>
<filespec> ::= <filename><switches>|
<filename>
<switches> ::= <switch><swiches>|<switch>
<switch> ::= /BYTESIZE=<number>|
/SOUND
The play list specifies when instruments are started, how long they
are to run, and what paramenters they are called with. It starts
with PLAY followed by an optional output file specification as to
____
where the output is to be directed. If no file specification is
given, PLAY must be followed with a semicolon. MUSCMP knows about the
____
following devices at Stanford:
DAC: Digital-to-Analog converter
____
DSK: Disk file
____
MTAn: Magnetic tape (`magtape')
_____
UDP: [Old format] user disk pack.(1)
____
If no device is specified, DSK: is assumed with the exception of
____
DAC:, the default is 18 bits with the last sample in each file
____
containing the maximum amplitude seen so far. Magtape is written in
a special format as magtape does not ordinarily contain a directory
or other indicates on the contents of that tape.(2) Unless the sound
_______________________
(1) One could write on new format UDP by also putting the file
containing the play list on the UDP and giving the moniter command
ASSIGN UDP1 DSK just before inputing the play list.
______ ____ ___
(2) If you need to know the exact format, see Section
Page 27
Music Manual Computing sound
is fairly short, it will be broken up into a number of files with
progressively increasing extensions. For example, if you specify
FOO.0 as the output file, MUSCMP will write FOO.0, FOO.1, FOO.2, etc.
_____ _____ _____ _____
Whenever it finishes a file, it also writes itself out on your disk
area as XXX.SAV, where XXX is the name of your input file. If the
_______
system crashes or you decide you want to go home, you can continue
the computation later by saying RUN XXX.SAV. This even applies to
___ _______
magtape, although you will have to mount it on the same logical
drive(1) and it may take awhile to find where it left off.
If a digital-to-analog converter is specified, you maybe specify the
number of seconds to be buffered in core memory by using a floating
point number in place of the file name which must have at least one
digit preceding and following the period. For example, PLAY DAC:1.0
____ _______
specifies a buffer for one second of sound. If more sound is
generated that specified by the core buffer, it will be put out in
several discontinuous segments.
8-2. Instrument Call
__________ ____
The rest of a PLAY block consists of instrument calls or statements.
A statement is as described in Section 10. An instrument call is
much like a function call. It consists of the name of an instrument,
followed by a list of parameter (or arguments). When an instrument
is called, the paramenters are placed in corresponding Pn variables
_
and the initialization code of the instrument is called. The
initialization code saves the Pn variables and preforms any
_
computations which only involve I-time variables (see Section ).
The rest of the instrument code is not run until a subsequent
instrument call is read and initialized which does not start at the
same time, or a FINISH statement is seen. Then each instrument is
run, one sample at a time, until the next instrument is to begin.
Then more instrument calls are read until the next one is found which
begins at a lster time, and the cycle is repeated until a FINISH
statement is seen and all instruments are finished. As an instrument
finishes, it is removed from the list of instruments to be run for
each sample.
Example:
_______________________
(1) You can get around this restriction using the ASSIGN command.
______
Suppose you need MTA0 but only MTA1 is available. Say to the system,
ASSIGN MTA1 MTA0 and any program refering to MTA0 will get MTA1
______ ____ ____
instead.
Page 28
Music Manual Computing sound
The following generates 1 second of a 440 Hz sine wave followed by
1/2 second of a 660Hz sine wave and outputs it directly to the
Digital-to-analog converter
COMMENT Fill array with sine wave;
ARRAY SINETABLE[511];
FOR I←0 STEP 1 UNTIL 511 DO SINETABLE[I]←SIN(2*PI/512);
INSTRUMENT SINE;
COMMENT Generate simple sine wave. P3 = Amplitude, P4 = frequency;
OUTA←OUTA+OSCIL(P4,P3*MAG,SINETABLE);
END;
COMMENT Now, generate the sound;
PLAY DAC:1.5;
SIMP 0, 1, 1000, 440;
SIMP 1, 1/2, 1000, 660;
FINISH;
Arguments to instruments may be either numbers or array, and one must
be careful to use the right type, as the compiler does not check for
you! If you give an array instead of a number, you will merely get
meaningless results. However, if you give a number when an array is
expected, you will most likely get a message from the moniter such as
?
ERROR IN JOB 31
ILL MEM REF AT USER 7601
↑C
.
The first two parameters in an instrument call have a special meaning
to MUSCMP. Traditionally the second two parameters are are also
special meaning, but could be used for any purpose. The meanings are
as follows:
P1 Begin time Time at which the instrument is started, in
__
seconds.
P2 Duration Length of time instrument will be run, in seconds.
__
P3 Frequency Typically fundemental frequence or pitch of
__
instrument [optional].
P4 Amplitude Typically maximum sample to be generated by this
__
instrument [optional].
Usually, arguments to instruments which are arrays usually appear at
the end of an instrument call. P3 and P4 are sometimes interchanged,
__ __
especially in FM instruments, so amplitude is P4 and frequency is P3.
__ __
Page 29
Music Manual Computing sound
Because of the way instruments are compiled, it is not possible call
the same instrument twice during same time period. This is because
it has only one set of temperary variables.
8-3. FINISH statement
______ _________
A FINISH statement terminates a PLAY block. It causes all
______
instruments to run to completion and the output file to be closed.
It also asks you if you want to delete the temperary file which saved
the state of your computation on long runs.
Page 30
Music Manual
Section 9
_______ _
Outputting the sound
__________ ___ _____
9-1. Short segments directly from MUSCMP
_____ ________ ________ ____ ______
For simple tests of a few seconds, it is probably easiest to output
the sound directly from MUSCMP. One does this by naming the digital-
to-analog converter in the PLAY statement, such as PLAY DAC:1.0; (for
____ ________
details, see section on PLAY statement on page Page 28).
9-2. Longer segments using MUSCMP to write a sound file
______ ________ _____ ______ __ _____ _ _____ ____
For longer tests, one can write a disk file which later send to the
digital-to-analog converter without change. One does this by using
something like PLAY DSK:TEST.SND/BYTESIZE=12/SOUND, where DSK: is
____ ______________________________ ____
optional. (Admittedly, this is rather verbose and will probably be
shorted soon.) When the computation is finished, one then runs one of
the disk playing programs:
DAC directly from DSK: or [new] UDP: to DAC:. It
Copies ____ ____ ____
accepts 12 bit or 18 bit files and handles 1, 2, or 4
channels at 12.8 KHz or 25.6 KHz. Program attempts to be
self-documenting and will ask you about clock rate and
number of channels if it can't figure it out itself.
9-3. Production runs
__________ ____
For production runs or long tests which need to be interruptable, it
is best to write a series of files instead of one large one. If just
a file name is given to MUSCMP with no switches this is what will
happen. In addition, this file is written in 18 bit format with a
special code at the end representing the maximum sample seen so far.
These files are not suitable for playing directly, but do retain more
accuracy than the more common 12 bit sound files and could be
converted to some other byte size at another time. This dates back
to when we only had a 12 bit DAC and wanted to preserve significant
___
Page 31
Music Manual Outputting the sound
computations in a form that could be utilized by high accuracy DAC
___
which we might obtain in the future. In order to send the sound to
the DAC:, you must convert the many files into one long file. This
____
is done by a special program called NMUSIO. It takes one or more
______
sequences of files and combines them into one large file which can be
written on either the DSK: or an old format UDP:. Its basic
____ ____
operation is as follows. It first asks for a description of a
sequence of files. This consists of the name of the first file
followed by a '-' and then the name of the last file. It looks to
see how they are different and increments the first file name
accordingly to access the second and subsequent files until it
matches the last filee. It then asks where the output should go.
This should be a single file (with an optional device specification).
NMUSIO then converts from 18 bit to 12 bit and does optional scaling
(if for example, the samples in the 18 bit would not fit in a 12 bit
word). When it finishes that sequence of files, it asks if you want
to aadd another sequence by saying "More input?". If you answer 'y',
it will then expect another sequence specification which it will
convert and asks you again if you have another sequence. If you
answer 'n', it will close your files and exit. You then run one of
the programs described in the previous section to hear what it sounds
like.
Page 32
Music Manual
Appendix A
________ _
Syntax
______
Note: {<foo>} means there may be from 0 to ∞ occurances of <foo>.
<block> ::= BEGIN <declaration list>;<statement list>
<declaration list> ::= <declaration>;<declaration list>|
<declaration>
<statement list> ::= <statement>;<statement list>|END
<statement> ::= <function call>|<unit generator call>|
<assignment statement>|<block>
<WHILE statement>|<UNTIL statement>|
<FOR statement>|<conditional statement>|
<PRINT statement>
<function call> ::= <function>(<parameter list>)
<unit generator call> ::= <unit generator>(<parameter list>)|
<unit generator>[<expression>](<parameter list>)
<parameter list> ::= <parameter>,<parameter list>|<parameter>
<parameter> ::= <expression>|<array>|<string constant>
<FOR statement> ::= FOR <variable>←<expression> STEP
<expression> UNTIL <expression> DO
<statement>
<PRINT statement> ::= PRINT <print list>
<print list> ::= <expression>,<print list>|<expression>|
<string constant>,<print list>|
<string constant>
<WHILE statement> ::= WHILE <conditional> DO <statement>
<UNTIL statement> ::= DO <statement> UNTIL <conditional>
<assignment statement> ::= <variable>←<expression>
<play block> ::= PLAY; <play list> |
PLAY <filespec>; <play list>
<instrument call> ::= <instrument><parameter list>
<extended commands> ::= EXIT|P <integer>|PRINT <expression>;|
RESET|FREEZE|SPACE|DDT|
<declarator> LIST
<declarator> ::= VARIABLE|ARRAY|FUNCTION|INSTRUMENT|
UNIT_GENERATOR
<declaration> ::= <variable declaration>|
<array declaration>|
<function declaration>|
<instrument declaration>
<variable declaration> ::= VARIABLE <var. dec. list>
<var. dec. list> ::= <identifier>,<var. dec. list>|
/<identifier>,<var. dec. list>|
Page 33
Music Manual Syntax
<identifier>|/<identifier>
<array declaration> ::= ARRAY <array decl. list>
<array decl. list> ::= <array decl. group>,<array decl. list>|
<array decl. group>
<array decl. group> ::= <variable>,<array decl. group>|
<variable>(<constant>)
<function declaration> ::= FUNCTION <identifier>(<formal list>)
<function tail>|
EXTERNAL FUNCTION <identifier>
(<formal list>)
<formal list> ::= <formal declaration>{,<formal list>}
<formal declaration> ::= ARRAY <identifier> |
INTEGER <identifier>|
STRING <identifier> |
<identifier>
<function tail> ::= ; <block> | = <expression>
<instrument declaration>::= INSTRUMENT <identifier>;
<declaration list>;<statement list>
<expression> ::= <term>|<term><addop><expression>
<term> ::= <factor>|<factor><mulop><term>
<factor> ::= <primary>
<primary> ::= -<primary>|(<expression>)|<variable>|
<function call>|<unit generator call>|
<array name>(<expression>)|<constant>
<variable>←<expression>
<addop> ::= +|-
<mulop> ::= *|/
<variable> ::= <letter><var tail>|<letter>
<var tail> ::= <alphanumeric><var tail>|<alphanumeric>
<alphanumeric> ::= <letter>|<number>
<letter> ::= A|B|C|...Z|_|$|#
<digit> ::= 0|1|2|...9
Page 34
Music Manual
Appendix B
________ _
Reserved Words
________ _____
ARRAY EXIT INTEGER RPRINT
BEGIN EXTERNAL LENGTH STEP
COMMENT FINISH LIST STRING
COMPILE FOR PI THEN
DONE FUNCTION PLAY UNIT_GENERATOR
DO I_ONLY PRINT UNTIL
ELSE IF R_PRINT VARIABLE
END INSTRUMENT RETURN WHILE
Page 36
Music Manual
Appendix C
________ _
Predefined Symbols
__________ _______
_SKIP_ Variable Used by obscure external routines to
record failures
ABS Function Returns absolute value of number
ARRBLT Function Copies N elements between two arrays
BIGBIT Variable LCS compatability mode
COSCIL Unit generator Oscillator which remembers pointer between
CZOSCIL Unit generator Interpolating version of COSCIL
DA_SECONDS Variable Number of seconds of sound to buffer in
core for DAC
DEBUGFLAG Variable Enables various compiler debugging
features
EXPEN Unit Generator Oscillator which doesn't wrap around
INT Function Returns integer part of floating point
number
INTRP Unit generator Interpolator driven by oscillator
LINEN Unit Generator Three part oscillator
LSBUF Variable Current size of DAC buffer
MAXSMP Variable Maximum sample seen
NCHNS Variable Number of channels active
NO_MSG Variable If nonzero, disable compiler messages
NOSCA Unit generator Oscillator with starting point given
NOSCIL Unit Generator Oscillator which accepts negative
increments
OSCIL Unit generator Simple oscillator
OUT Unit Generator Equivalent to OUTA←OUTA+X
OUT2 Unit Generator Equivalent to FUNCTION OUT2(X,CH1,CH2);
________ ________________
BEGIN
_____
OUTA Variable Output channel A
OUTB Variable Output channel B
OUTC Variable Output channel C
OUTD Variable Output channel D
OUTSPEC String Output specification
P_ARRAY Array P1,P2,P3,...
RAND Function Returns a pseduo-random number between -1
and 1
RANDH Unit generator Oscillator controlled random numbers with
hold
RANDI Unit generator Oscillator controlled random numbers with
RCDFLG Variable LCS compatability mode
REV1 Unit Generator Comb Filter (Reverberator)
REV2 Unit Generator All-Pass Reverberator
Page 37
Music Manual Predefined Symbols
REVINIT Unit generator If nonzero, reverberator arrays are zeroed
when
SPEED Variable Speed at which to run DAC (see SETCLOCK)
SRATE Variable Sampling rate
TIMESC Variable Time scale used for half-speed recoding
(obsolete)
VALUE Unit generator Returns its first argument
VFMULT Unit Generator Multiplies amplitude by array element
ZEXPEN Unit Generator Interpolating oscillator without wrap
around
ZINTRP Unit generator Interpolator driven by interpolating
oscillator
ZOSCA Unit generator Interpolating oscillator with starting
point given
ZOSCIL Unit generator Interpolating oscillator OUTA←OUTA+X*CH1;
OUTB←OUTB+X*CH2; END; initialized
instrument calls interpolation
Page 38
Music Manual
Appendix D
________ _
Error Messages.
_____ _________
A simple statement inside a 'COMPILE' section just wastes space!
_ ______ _________ ______ _ _________ _______ ____ ______ ______
It will never be executed.
ARRGH! INIT with WAITBIT gave error return!?!!
______ ____ ____ _______ ____ _____ __________
Horrible system error. Shouldn't happen
Array expected in function or U.G. call, but number found instead. Pr
_____ ________ __ ________ __ ____ _____ ___ ______ _____ ________ __
Either a function or Unit Generator was called with a Pn symbol,
which should have be an array, but instead a floating point number
was found. This is usually caused by passing a number instead of an
array in an instrument call, or an error in the instrument with
respect to the numbering of the Pn arguments.
Attempt to do numeric operation on a string!
_______ __ __ _______ _________ __ _ _______
String comparison not implemented.
Attempt to do numeric operation on a string!
_______ __ __ _______ _________ __ _ _______
You have given a string to a numeric operator, such as '+', '-', '*',
'/', '>', etc.
Attempt to reference unit generator output at R-Time
_______ __ _________ ____ _________ ______ __ ______
At I-time, the output of a unit generator is undefined.
Byte size not 12 or 18 bits for DAC
____ ____ ___ __ __ __ ____ ___ ___
Other byte sizes are not handled by this device. Will use a 12-bit
bytesize anyway (caveat).
C O M P I L E R E R R O R ! ! ! Get TOVAR or save this core image
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _____ __ ____ ____ ____ _____
Something unexpected has happened which would probably should be
looked at as it is most likely a bug.
Can't INIT AD
_____ ____ __
Digital to Analog Converter is probably in use.
Can't INIT DAC
_____ ____ ___
Digital to Analog Converter is probably in use.
Can't INIT DSK!
_____ ____ ____
An unlikely situation.
Can't INIT TTY!
_____ ____ ____
Page 39
Music Manual Error Messages.
An unlikely situation.
Can't INIT mag tape
_____ ____ ___ ____
Someone else is probably using it.
Can't OPEN output file
_____ ____ ______ ____
Usually this means the file is protected or already being written.
Can't delete .SAV file
_____ ______ ____ ____
Perhaps someone is referencing it.
Can't expand core!
_____ ______ _____
Could get enough core. You lose.
Can't expand core
_____ ______ ____
Can't have an R-time statement controlled by an I-time conditional
_____ ____ __ ______ _________ __________ __ __ ______ ___________
The DO ... UNTIL statement will never terminate under such
circumstances.
Can't re-INIT output device.
_____ _______ ______ _______
Someone else it probably using it.
Can't reduce core!
_____ ______ _____
Shouldn't happen.
Can't setup buffers for output
_____ _____ _______ ___ ______
This error is probably due to some change to I/O in system.
DAC error
___ _____
Error detected while outputing to the DAC.
DONE statement illegal here
____ _________ _______ ____
DRYROT IN MAG. TAPE ROUTINE
______ __ ____ ____ _______
Dangling ELSE or extraneous ';' in IF...THEN...ELSE statement
________ ____ __ __________ ___ __ ________________ _________
The statement following the 'THEN' in a IF...THEN...ELSE statement is
terminated by the ELSE and should not have a semicolon after it.
Declarations should be made at start of block
____________ ______ __ ____ __ _____ __ _____
You may continue from this error.
Dimension should be a number
_________ ______ __ _ ______
Dynamic arrays are not implimented.
ERROR IN READING THE BITMAP/DIRECTORY
_____ __ _______ ___ ________________
Page 40
Music Manual Error Messages.
ERROR IN SETTING UP BUFFER RINGS
_____ __ _______ __ ______ _____
ERROR IN WRITING BITMAP!
_____ __ _______ _______
ERROR IN WRITING TAPE DIRECTORY!
_____ __ _______ ____ __________
The tape files were written correctly, however, the directory could
not be written out properly. Use tape fixing program on this one.
EXIT statement illegal outside of block
____ _________ _______ _______ __ _____
EXPRESSION TOO COMPLEX, MAY BE A COMPILER BUG
__________ ___ ________ ___ __ _ ________ ___
Expected to find a '←' here
________ __ ____ _ ___ ____
The compiler assumed you had begun an assignment statement.
External functions only, please
________ _________ _____ ______
The compiler does not know about anything else being external.
FORWARD REF. TO UNIT GENERATOR
_______ ____ __ ____ _________
You have most likely referenced the output of a unit generator which
have not been defined yet. [If there are no Un symbols in the
expression, it may be a compiler bug.]
ILLEGAL DEBUGFLAG SETTING
_______ _________ _______
ILLEGAL FILE NAME
_______ ____ ____
ILLEGAL FORMAL PARAMETER
_______ ______ _________
IMPROPER ARRAY PARAMETER
________ _____ _________
IMPROPER STRING PARAMETER
________ ______ _________
INIT failed for that device
____ ______ ___ ____ ______
INPUT ERROR
_____ _____
INTEGERS PRESENTLY ALLOWED ONLY FOR EXTERNAL FUNCTIONS, SORRY
________ _________ _______ ____ ___ ________ __________ _____
Illegal byte size, ignored
_______ ____ _____ _______
Illegal character in number
_______ _________ __ ______
Not a digit or decimal point.
Illegal character
_______ _________
A character was found in file which has no meaning to the compiler.
Illegal declaration
_______ ___________
Page 41
Music Manual Error Messages.
You may not make a declaration of type UNIT_GENERATOR, STRING or
INTEGER.
Illegal primary
_______ _______
Illegal primary
_______ _______
Should be a number, variable, array or function call.
It appears that your tape directory has been garbaged.
__ _______ ____ ____ ____ _________ ___ ____ _________
Read error or some sort of inconsistancy on directory.
MAG TAPE ERROR???!?
___ ____ __________
MAG. TAPE ERROR
____ ____ _____
Missing '(' after array
_______ ___ _____ _____
You are probably trying to use a array as a variable. Arrays must be
subscripted.
Missing '(' in array declaration
_______ ___ __ _____ ___________
Missing '(' in function call
_______ ___ __ ________ ____
Missing ')' after array subscript
_______ ___ _____ _____ _________
Missing ')' in array declaration
_______ ___ __ _____ ___________
Missing ')' in expression
_______ ___ __ __________
Unbalanced parentheses or missing operator in expression.
Missing ')' in function definition
_______ ___ __ ________ __________
Missing ')' or too many parameters in function call
_______ ___ __ ___ ____ __________ __ ________ ____
Missing ';' or '=' in function definition
_______ ___ __ ___ __ ________ __________
Missing ';'
_______ ___
Missing ';'
_______ ___
Statements should be terminated with a semicolon
Missing '=' in BYTESIZE
_______ ___ __ ________
Missing 'BEGIN' in function definition
_______ _______ __ ________ __________
Missing 'DO' in FOR
_______ ____ __ ___
Missing 'END'
_______ _____
Page 42
Music Manual Error Messages.
Missing 'STEP' in FOR
_______ ______ __ ___
Missing 'THEN'
_______ ______
'THEN' Missing in IF...THEN...ELSE Statement.
Missing 'UNTIL' in FOR
_______ _______ __ ___
Missing 'UNTIL'
_______ _______
UNTIL missing from DO ... UNTIL statement or extraneous ';`.
Missing ']' in unit generator call
_______ ___ __ ____ _________ ____
Missing '←' in FOR
_______ ___ __ ___
Missing DO in WHILE statement
_______ __ __ _____ _________
Missing END
_______ ___
FINISH statement giving inside a block.
Missing External function
_______ ________ ________
Either an external function was not loaded or its name was
misspelled.
Missing IDENTIFIER
_______ __________
Multiply defined symboi
________ _______ ______
Multiply dimensional array not implimented, sorry
________ ___________ _____ ___ ____________ _____
Multiply dimensioned arrays not implemented
________ ___________ ______ ___ ___________
You may also have confused an array name with a function name.
NEGATIVE INC. TO OSCIL
________ ____ __ _____
OSCIL is not defined to go accept a negative increment however if you
continue from this error it will treat this increment as a NOSCIL
does.
NOT ALLOWED IN 'PLAY' SECTION
___ _______ __ ______ _______
NUMERIC ARGUMENT REQUIRED HERE
_______ ________ ________ ____
A string was found where a numberic argument was expected.
Negative increment to LINEN
________ _________ __ _____
LINEN is undefined for negative increments. The results may be
unpredicatable.
Negative increment to ZEXPEN
________ _________ __ ______
Page 43
Music Manual Error Messages.
ZEXPEN is undefined for negative increments however if you contiune
it will treat it like a ZOSCIL.
Never heard of that switch
_____ _____ __ ____ ______
OUTn too big, clipped
____ ___ ____ _______
Sample just computed was too big to represent in the byte size
currently being used for output. This usually is indicative of some
problem in an instrument.
Output error?
______ ______
Error detected while writing out sample buffer
PARITY ERROR ON MAG. TAPE
______ _____ __ ____ ____
R-Time condition for I-Time Statement in WHILE statement
______ _________ ___ ______ _________ __ _____ _________
No R-Time code was generated after an R-Time conditional. It is
most likely that this will result in an infinite loop!
R-Time conditional for I-time IF-THEN-ELSE statement
______ ___________ ___ ______ ____________ _________
No R-time code was generated after an R-Time conditional. Therefore
the IF-THEN statement acts as if the condition were always true for
the 'THEN' clause and always false for the 'ELSE' clause!
RETURN statement illegal outside of function definition
______ _________ _______ _______ __ ________ __________
Only functions may return a value. Use EXIT to leave a block.
SETPR2 failed! Therefore, can't do output to mag tape.
______ _______ __________ _____ __ ______ __ ___ _____
The program peeks at the monitor to find out what the mag tape is
doing. The UUO which permits this failed.
STRING REQUIRED HERE
______ ________ ____
Something other than a string found as an argument to a function
which expected a string as (one of) its arguments.
SWAP failed
____ ______
Simple variable required here
______ ________ ________ ____
FOR loops expect a simple variable, i.e. not an array.
Storage full!
_______ _____
String too long or missing "
______ ___ ____ __ _______ _
Strings have a limited length.
Subscript out of bounds at compile time.
_________ ___ __ ______ __ _______ _____
You have a subscript expression which evaluates to a constant which
is either too large or too small.
Page 44
Music Manual Error Messages.
Tape full and no checkpoint to restart from.
____ ____ ___ __ __________ __ _______ _____
This feature can not be used on DEC systems yet. Sorry.
____ _______ ___ ___ __ ____ __ ___ _______ ____ ______
There are some things you can do at Stanford that you can not do
elsewhere.
This isn't FORTRASH. Use a '←' assignment next time
____ _____ _________ ___ _ ___ __________ ____ ____
However '=' will be accepted under protest.
Too few arguments in function call
___ ___ _________ __ ________ ____
Too many END statements
___ ____ ___ __________
Too many parameters in function call
___ ____ __________ __ ________ ____
Type mismatch for assignment
____ ________ ___ __________
You are trying to assign a string to a numeric variable or a number
to a string variable!
UDP in use or assignned to another job
___ __ ___ __ _________ __ _______ ___
UNDEFINED IDENTIFIER
_________ __________
UNDEFINED IDENTIFIER
_________ __________
An identifier was used before it was declared.
Undefined IDENTIFIER
_________ __________
Unexpected symbol beginning a statement
__________ ______ _________ _ _________
It will be ignored and attempt to continue compilation.
Unimplimented operation
_____________ _________
AND and OR are not implimented.
Unit Generator call illegal outside of instrument definition
____ _________ ____ _______ _______ __ __________ __________
Unit generators are only to be used inside of instruments as they
require special initialization at I-time.
Unit generator call illegal outside of instrument definition
____ _________ ____ _______ _______ __ __________ __________
Unit generators are only to be used inside of instruments as they
require special initialization at I-time.
Use of two relational operator is illegal here
___ __ ___ __________ ________ __ _______ ____
The compiler doesn't know how to deal with expression like '2>X>9'.
Write it as two conditions.
You are calling an instrument which is already running!
___ ___ _______ __ __________ _____ __ _______ ________
Page 45
Music Manual Error Messages.
Since the code generated for instruments is non-reentrant, you should
not call it with overlapping time periods as this will produce
unpredicable results. Instead you should make a copy of with a
different name (and different variable names if they are declared
outside that instrument).
You can't subscript an array with a string!
___ _____ _________ __ _____ ____ _ _______
An array can only be subscripted by something that evaluates to be a
number.
You have the wrong pack mounted on the UDP
___ ____ ___ _____ ____ _______ __ ___ ___
The password for the UDP scratch pack was not correct.
Page 46
Music Manual
Appendix E
________ _
Changes since MUS10
_______ _____ _____
Most of the problems which caused the message ILL MEM REF have been
eliminated. If come across any problems or have any needs or
suggestions, Please bring them to my attention by saying to the
Monitor:
.MAIL TVR
The MAIL program will explain itself.
The sample output routines have been rewritten to eliminate the
BIGBIT kludge. The intermediate files whose extensions have been
MUSAA.DMD are now in the form: <file name>.<integer>, for example:
TEST.0, TEST.1, TEST.2,... Now more than one set of intermediate
files may be on the disk at one time an any set may be deleted by
saying DEL <file name>.*, for example DEL TEST.*. The format has also
been changed, since it is no longer done with FORTRAN. Therefore a
new conversion program has also been written to replace CONNEW,
called NMUSIO. A programmed called DAC is used to play from the
disk. For details, see Page 27.
The error printout routines now contain an option to continue, or to
edit, to retry, or to debug with DDT.
Core is obtained automatically, whenever possible. It occasionally
loses under certain circumstances.
Play now prints the run time used in computing the samples.
When the Compiler asks for an input file, it is no longer necessary
to precede a file name with DSK:. If just a return is typed, TTY: is
assumed.
The Compiler will accept files editted by TVED or E.
When inputting from the TTY, SYNTH and SEG will display the array
being filled.
MUSCMP should generate slightly better code and evaluate constant
expressions during compilation.
Page 47
Music Manual Changes since MUS10
Array elements may be individually referenced. This allows complex
waveforms to be described by arbitrarily complex mathematic
expression, instead of the previous restrictions to combination of
sine waves or approximation by line segments.
There is a new set of statements and block structure added. These
statements include IF, WHILE, UNTIL and FOR statements. A print
statement has been added which allows literal strings so that
messages may be printed as well as numbers, which are now printed in
floating point notation. The literal strings may also be passed to
functions. In order to use certain routines in the FORTRAN Library,
the data type INTEGER has been added but is currently limited to the
external functions until type conversion code can be added to the
compiler.
Functions may now be blocks as well as expressions.
To make debugging the compiler easier, a special debugging mode has
been added.
Page 48
Music Manual
I N D E X
(References are to Page numbers)
ABS 26 identifier 3
Absolute value 26 increment 19
ALOG 26 index 9
argument 5 Instrument Call 28
Array Declaration 4 Instrument call parameters 29
Array Subscripting 4, 8 Instrument Declaration 6
Assignment statement 5, 11 INT 26
Integer 4
BEGIN 13 INTRP 20
BIGBIT 47
Block 13, 14 KL10 Incompatability 26
called by reference 5 LENGTH 25
Controlled Calling Rates 17 LINEN 18
COS 26 LIST 16
COSCIL 19 local variable 13
Cosine 26 local variables 5
CZOSCIL 21 Logarithm 26
DAC 15, 27, 28, 31 MAG 19
DDT 15 Magnetic tape 27
Declaration 3, 4, 5, 6
DMD 47 NOSCA 20
DONE 14 NOSCIL 19
END 13 OSCIL 19
EXCISE 15
EXIT 14, 15 P_Array 3
EXP 26 P-variables 4
EXPEN 20 parameters 5, 8
Exponent 27 Play 15
Expressions 7 PNUM 24
Extended Commands 15, 16 PRINT 12, 15, 24
External 6 Pseudo-random numbers 25
FINISH statement 28, 30 RAID 15
FOR 12, 14 RAND 25
formal parameter 5 RANDH 22
FORTRAN 6 RANDI 22
FORTRAN I/O 24 Random numbers 25
Function Call 8, 10 RDNUM 25
Function Declaration 5 Real 4
Relational operators 7
Page 49
Music Manual
Reserved Words 36
RETURN 6, 14
SEE 24
SEG 23
SETCLOCK 24
SIN 26
Sine 26
SPACE 15
Special variables 3
SQRT 26
Square root 26
Statement 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
String 4, 12
subroutine 8, 10
subscript 9
Symbol Table 16
Syntax 33, 34
SYNTH 23
U-variables 3, 8
U-varibles 11
UDP 27, 31
Unit Generator17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22
Unit Generator Call 8, 10
UNTIL 11, 14
VALUE 18
Variable Declaration 3
VFMULT 17
WHILE 11, 14
ZEXPEN 21
ZINTRP 21
ZOSCA 21
ZOSCIL 21
Page 50